Yeoman Festivals

The yeoman festivals were games followed by feasts. the games consisted of a variety of things, but basically any physical combat you can think of without armor, and that is what was in these games. some of these things consist of quarterstaff competitions, wrestling, "boxing", team "boxing", team quarterstaff, team wrestling, free for all, individual, pairs, etc. In the feasts they would have drinking, eating, dancing, singing, and instrument competitions, and recitals.

The Quarterstaff:
"Medieval Quarterstaff - This weapon consisted of a long shaft of hardwood

The shaft consisted of a long, thick pole measuring between 6 - 9 feet (3.6 to 5.4 metres)

Quarterstaffs were sometimes reinforced with metal tips usually made of iron

Used as a close contact weapon with thrusting, sweeping, clubbing or striking actions

A blow could apply tremendous force cracking a mans head, or bones if unprotected

The weapon was primarily used for bludgeoning an opponent. It was used both to deliver crushing blows, and also to thrust like a spear

Type or group of weapons - Bludgeoning Weapon

The Medieval Quarterstaff was also known by names such Stave or Balkstaff"
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As you can see a quarterstaff was a very effective weapon for any peoples. It was used to increase agility and reaction time. If you could react by blocking a quarterstaff for some time you could block a sword a lot more easily. Though a sword is not slow a sword could not change direction of the blow as quickly as a quarterstaff could. Therefore making the quarterstaff a very lethal weapon. Not only that, but a quarterstaff could crush skulls and bones.

Wrestling and "Boxing":

Wrestling was a brutal form of combat that encouraged taking advantage of your opponent by any means necessary in order to win a fight and stay alive. It is apparent that wrestling was accepted by all masters of weapons as essential to combat. It gave a distinct advantage to those who possessed it and the masters taught their savage techniques throughout the age. With wrestling a warrior could use himself as the weapon, which truly would have been an advantage if all others were lost.

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They would try to knowck the other person on the ground and they would wrestle. It is pretty universal what wrestling is, and their form of wrestling was very similair. they would knock the other person on the ground, and would get them in choke holds, and arm holds until the opponent gave up.

In boxing it was also very smple and similair. they would get in a ring usually with small padding, but not a lot, and they would fist fight. they would do these with teams or free for all, and it was the last man standing.

Entertainment:
Although the main objective of the Medieval fairs were trade and commerce, every fair contained some element of merry-making. Possibly starting from merchants trying to sell their goods, people were determined to attract the most customers to their stalls. Therefore, from a very early date, there was always fun at the fair. Any entertainment to attract a crowd, singers, musicians, acrobats, stilt walkers and fools. Fairs included various contests such as archery tournaments. Medieval tournaments sometimes coincided with Medieval fairs. Fast food and other refreshments were available. There were lots of opportunities for fun at the Medieval fairs.
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Feasts and Banquets:

"Anyone who has seen medieval pictures of banqueting scenes will have noticed musicians almost invariably present, blowing fanfares to herald the beginning of a course or playing to entertain the diners while they eat. Other entertainers might include minstrels, jugglers, mummers, or players putting on a pageant or interlude, a form of theatrical entertainment referred to in Sir Gawain and the Green Knight. This poem is also one of many sources of evidence that the guests themselves did a lot of singing and dancing. Since the banqueting in the poem takes place in the Christmas season, much of the singing and dancing consists of carols. But a major source of entertainment at a medieval banquet was apt to be culinary in nature, at least in part."

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They would have storytellers telling epics or legends, and a lot of the times they would say riddles. The riddles could be anything, and during the night people would try to figure them out, and sometimes the lords would give a prize to the person who could solve one of the hardest riddles. During the feasting part they would have 5-7 course dinners. Most of them were 6, but with a few exceptions. the most important of feasts had more food, and least important had less food.

Drinking and Dancing:
These are pretty simple. You can dance individually or with a partner, and temas or individuals would compete. they would see who could dance the best, and for the longest. if it was deemed to easy the person(s) were taken out, and the last person standing won. Now for drinking it was whoever could drink the most in a certain amount of time. This was usually ale or beer, and was never wine.(My Father a history nerd like Mr. Lockwood:})

So in all fairs/festivals were usually held on church feast days and or land days such as 1st day of spring etc. There was plenty of entertainment and fun. Fairs were more public like festivals, but there was a special feast after festivals unlike fairs. Fairs were mainly for merchanting, and festivals for showing off skill, and winning prizes. There were plenty of events, and anyone could enter them knowing real well the consequences of joining an event such as wrestling or quarterstaff fights.

Tournaments and Games

During the Renaissance era there have been findings of board games such as Baggamon, Chess, Card games, and even dice games. Dice would be made out of bone, stone, or wood. During the tournaments Jousting, and swordplay took place during the time of tournaments. Jousting consisted of two knights, warriors who rode horses, with lances, which were made of wood, and charged each other. one point would be given if a man were to break the lance between the torso and the neck, two points if they broke the lance on his head, and three points were awarded if the man knowcked the other knight off his horse. when doing this the knight was awarded not only three points, but his horse, and that round of jousting was over.

"Hostory Channel"

"The History of the Medieval Lance evolved over the era. The forerunner of the Medieval Lance was the spear. The spear was a favoured weapon of the Normans as can be seen from scenes from the Bayeux tapestry depicting the 1066 Battle of Hastings. The spear was carried by Normans who fought on horseback. At this point of Medieval history the English did not have a cavalry. Their skills in horsemanship and this type of warfare developed after the Norman invasion. And history saw the spear develop into the Medieval Lance. Tournaments were introduced from France to England in the 12th Century and the lance was strongly featured in these Medieval games."

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Tournaments provided a means for knights to practice warfare and build their strength in times of peace. Tournaments were essentially mock battles with audiences. The audience was usually made up of "fair damsels". This was another way in which a knight was expected to act chivalrous. The tournaments had different rules that had to be followed. They were judged by umpires that watched for dishonest play. Tournaments were usually fought between either two people or two teams. If two people fought a tournament, it was usually by jousting. The two knights would gallop across the playing field at each other. They carried long, blunt poles and shields. The objective was to knock the other person out of his saddle. Team play was conducted with fierce mock combat between two bands of fighters. They fought with wooden or blunted weapons so as to reduce the risk of getting hurt. However, this was often not the case. Many people did get hurt or die by accident.
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At 1st tournaments were unorganized and many people died within the tournament, but There were also events in sword and mace fighting, where the combatants fought on foot, but the joust was the event that gained a contestant the most glory. It was also the most popular event for spectators.

Knights could make a fortune from jousting. Since early times, they were entitled to keep the armour and horses of their vanquished opponents. These were usually ransomed back to the former owner and the victor could thus amass a considerable fortune.

Squires could also 'win their spurs' and be knighted if they acquitted themselves well at a tournament.
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"Accuracy was also an important factor and squires practised "Running at the Rings" where the lance was aimed at a target in the shape of a ring - these rings were obviously much smaller to lance than a man and this skill was therefore difficult to master.

Skill in using Medieval weapons was dependent on weapon practise. The Quintain was used for training in the use of the Medieval Lance. A quintain enabled target practise with a lance. This idea was 'borrowed' from the Romans.

The First Stage of training - A Page would start to acquire the skills required of a Knight by practising the skills of tilting a lance against the quintain. At first a target was erected and the Page would mount a wooden 'horse' on wheels holding a lance. The wooden horse would be pulled along by two other pages towards the target and the page would aim the lance.

The second stage of training - As the apprentice Knights, the squires, acquired the skills of horsemanship they would practise against a shield and dummy which were suspended from a swinging pole. The shield was hit by a charging squire and his objective was to avoid the rotating arms and not get knocked from the saddle. The dummy was often made to look realistic by portraying symbols of the knights current enemy. A dummy would be designed to look like a Saracen, for example, during the period of the crusades.

Weapons practise - Fully fledged knights would also practise at the quintain to ensure their skills using the lance were in peak condition and that their bodies remained fit and agile in preparation for his role as a fighter."

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Sports in the medieval ages were pretty much tournaments. They didnt play "sports" as we would call them today. They were tournaments with a little more practices, such as mace fights, sword fights, and archery. in fact archery was so important that lower class people were required by law to practice archery, and this is why.

"Archery was not just one of the Medieval sports of the Middle Ages. Lower Class men were required to practise archery by law! The first Medieval Archery Law was passed in 1252 when all Englishmen between the age of 15 to 60 years old were ordered, by Law, to equip themselves with a bow and arrows. The areas designated for archery training during the Medieval period of the Middle Ages were called the Butts. The power of the longbow was so great that at the Battle of Crecy, in 1346, the French army was decimated. It is estimated that nearly 2000 French knights and soldiers were killed by the longbow arrows. The English lost just 50 men. This explains why Archery Laws were passed and why training at the Butts was so important and included as one of the most important Medieval sports in the Middle Ages!
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But there were in fact some sports that we would call sports such as
Archery - Archery contests were especially popular

Bowls

Colf - the ancestor of Golf ( a sport for the nobles)

Gameball - a simple football game

Hammer-throwing

Hurling or Shinty - a similar game to hockey

Horseshoes - throwing horseshoes at a target

Jousting at Tournaments

Quarter-staff contests

Skittles - an ancestor of modern ten-pin bowling

Stoolball - an ancestor of Cricket

Wrestling

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So as you can see, there were little sports played back then, the main thing was jousting. That is how knights proved themselves, how they could get either very rich or very poor, and especially how they trained for war.

Medieval Art

The time period in which the Renaissance art was created was during the Renaissance period. The Renaissance art is distinctive in many ways. The Renaissance was the revival of the learning and cultural awareness that occurred in the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries. They occurred mainly in Italy, but also took place in Germany and other European countries. This time period was focused on the revival of the ancient Greek and Roman art, which included a focus on science, philosophy, human beings, and their environment. book source

The Renaissance was, fundamentally, a renewal or rebirth of cultural responsiveness and learning that took place during the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries. It followed the middle ages, and was essentially a time of the revival of learning after the Middle Ages.

A third popular method of approaching art was known as the romanesque period, which lasted from 1000 to the start of Gothic art in the twelfth century. It originally developed as a result of monasticism in Western Europe, having its start in France. It eventually spread to Christian England, Spain, Germany, Italy, and Flanders, becoming the first medieval style to be widely spread throughout Europe. It was mainly expressed through figurative sculptures that were colorfully painted, which provided an important component to large churches. They were commonly placed in the capitals of the columns that surrounded the magnificent churches, as well as around remarkable portals, that were centered above doors. They best representation of these are found at the Vezelay Abbey and the Autun Cathedral, which express how important this style of art was in creating these buildings.


One of the greatest artists during the Renaissance was Leonardo Da Vinci. He was a supreme example of a Renaissance genius who possessed one of the greatest minds of all times. He drew the first relaxed portraits with misty landscapes in the backgrounds. He was able to potray the misty backgrounds using warm and passionate colors. He was famous for the way he used light in his portaits.

Most of the main types of art that impacted the world then, and does today as well are:

Illuminated Manuscripts (highly decorated book pages)
Metalwork
Jewelry
Painting
Fresco (painting in wet plaster on a ceiling or wall)
Panel Painting
Embroidery/tapestries
Ceramic art (such as pottery)
Mosaic
Engraving
Sculptures
Stained glass art

Medieval Art

The 4th Crusade

the 4th crusade

The First Crusade

The crusaders in the 1st crusade faced perils such as starvation, exhaustion, deadly disease, and bloodthirsty battles. They face a 3000 kilometer journey to Jerusalem from Constantinople. They showed their will to follow God and their immense brutality against infidels. Even against all of these things, all odds, and from the cost of human suffereing they finally prevailed against the Muslims.Google Book

"The First Crusade played a very important part in Medieval England. The First Crusade was an attempt to re-capture Jerusalem. After the capture of Jerusalem by the Muslims in 1076, any Christian who wanted to pay a pilgrimage to the city faced a very hard time. Muslim soldiers made life very difficult for the Christians and trying to get to Jerusalem was filled with danger for a Christian. This greatly angered all Christians.
One Christian - called Alexius I of Constantinople - feared that his country might also fall to the Muslims as it was very close to the territory captured by the Muslims. Constantinople is in modern day Turkey. Alexius called on the pope - Urban II - to give him help.

In 1095, Urban spoke to a great crown at Clermont in France. He called for a war against the Muslims so that Jerusalem was regained for the Christian faith. In his speech he said:
"Christians, hasten to help your brothers in the East, for they are being attacked. Arm for the rescue of Jerusalem under your captain Christ. Wear his cross as your badge. If you are killed your sins will be pardoned."

Those who volunteered to go to fight the Muslims cut out red crosses and sewed them on their tunics. The French word "croix" means cross and the word changed to "croisades" or crusades. The fight against the Muslims became a Holy War."

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Obviously the Christians didn't like the idea that the Muslims took over their holy city and could move on to taking other major cities such as Constantinople and Rome. So in reaction to this the Europeans, who used feudalism as means to build up armies, slightly joined together to fight the Muslims.

"The crusader's 1st aim in the 1st crusade was to take over the city of Nicea which wasnt too much trouble. Next they sought after Antioch, which at that time was heavily guarded, and it took the crusaders 7 months to take the city. Finally they went after Jerusalem.

The attack and capture of Jerusalem started in the summer of 1099. Jerusalem was well defended with high walls around it. The first attacks on the city were not successful as the Crusaders were short of materials for building siege machines. Once logs had arrived, two siege machines were built.

A monk called Fulcher was on the First Crusade. He wrote about the attack on the Holy City and he can be treated as an eye-witness as to what took place.

Fulcher claimed that once the Crusaders had managed to get over the walls of Jerusalem, the Muslim defenders there ran away. Fulcher claimed that the Crusaders cut down anybody they could and that the streets of Jerusalem were ankle deep in blood. The rest of the Crusaders got into the city when the gates were opened. The slaughter continued and the Crusaders "killed whoever they wished". Those Muslims who had their lives spared, had to go round and collect the bodies before dumping them outside of the city because they stank so much. The Muslims claimed afterwards that 70,000 people were killed and that the Crusaders took whatever treasure they could from the Dome of the Rock.

The Crusader attack on Jerusalem - in the foreground is a siege castle

After the success of the Crusaders, the Kingdom of Jerusalem was created and its first king was Godfrey of Bouillon who was elected by other crusaders. He died in 1100 and was succeeded by his brother Baldwin of Boulogne.

The capture of Jerusalem did not end the Crusades as the Crusaders wanted to get rid of the Muslims from the whole region and not just Jerusalem. This desire led to the other crusades.

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Before they started their attacks upon the Muslim invaders the crusaders went through perilous times getting to Constantinople. First off they ran out of fresh water, and a historian wrote that they had to drink their own urine, animal blood, or water from the sewage. Also food was scarce, and they had to plunder and pilgrimage cities in order to keepo the soldiers fighting fit.

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"Real armies were gathering in the West. Recruits came in greater numbers from France than from any other country, a circumstance which resulted in the crusaders being generally called "Franks" by their Moslem foes. They had no single commander, but each contingent set out for Constantinople by its own route and at its own time.

The First Crusade - The Siege of Antioch
Godfrey of Bouillon, Duke of Lorraine, and Tancred, "the mirror of knighthood," were among the most noted of the leaders of the different divisions of the army. The expedition numbered about 700,000 men, of whom fully 100,000 were mailed knights. The crusaders traversed Europe by different routes and reassembled at Constantinople. Crossing the Bosphorus, they first captured Nicaea, the Turkish capital, in Bithynia, and then set out across Asia Minor for Syria. Arriving at Antioch, the survivors captured that place, and then, after some delays, pushed on towards Jerusalem. The Siege of Antioch had lasted from October 1097 to June 1098.

The First Crusade - The City of Jerusalem
Reduced now to perhaps one-fourth of their original numbers, the crusaders advanced slowly to the city which formed the goal of all their efforts. When at length the Holy City burst upon their view, a perfect delirium of joy seized the crusaders. They embraced one another with tears of joy, and even embraced and kissed the ground on which they stood. As they passed on, they took off their shoes, and marched with uncovered head and bare feet, singing the words of the prophet: "Jerusalem, lift up thine eyes, and behold the liberator who comes to break thy chains." Before attacking it they marched barefoot in religious procession around the walls, with Peter the Hermit at their head. Then came the grand assault.

The First Crusade - The Capture of Jerusalem
The first assault made by the Christians upon the walls of the city was repulsed; but the second was successful, and the city was in the hands of the crusaders by July 1099. Godfrey of Bouillon and Tancred were among the first to mount the ramparts. Once inside the city, the crusaders massacred their enemies without mercy. A terrible slaughter of the infidels took place. For seven days the carnage went on, at the end of which time scarcely any of the Moslem faith were left alive. The Christians took possession of the houses and property of the infidels, each soldier having a right to that which he had first seized and placed his mark upon.

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The First Crusade

The Effects of Jihad and Just War during the Crusades

"In medieval times, feelings of Jihad lay behind fighting for the defence of Islam in the Mediterranean basin, such as during the Crusades in the Levant and during the Christian Reconquista of the Iberian peninsula. It was also used for the spreading of Islam outside the heartlands, e.g. into sub-Saharan Africa, in the Indian subcontinent, and in Indonesia. Typical manifestations of this last in West Africa were the Fulani Jihad led by Usumanu dan Fodio (d. 1817) in Hausaland and jihads by Umar al-Futi and Samori Ture in other parts of black West Africa in the 19th century, aimed primarily at spreading the faith among local animists. In Muslim India, notable was the movement of the mujahedin or ‘fighters for the faith’ of Sayyid Ahmad Brelwi (killed 1831), primarily against the Sikhs in the Punjab, and other similar movements against the British which continued throughout the century and into the present one, especially along the North-West frontier. In pre-modern times jihad was not invariably directed against the outside, non-Islamic world; at various times, the slogans of jihad were employed in campaigns against heterodox or dissident Muslims, such as the Ismailis, during the Mongol period and just afterwards."

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Jihad Again was used for defense against intruders and those who oppesed the Islamic faith. if you were not of Islamic faith with jihad they were able to attack you to convert you into Islam or in other words Muslim.

"The decline of the Roman Empire gave rise to two problems, which combined to form one of the most perplexing philosophical questions of late antiquity. On the one hand, Rome found itself under constant military threat as various tribes from the north and east encroached along its borders to fill the power vacuum left by the receding Empire. On the other hand, adherents to the Empire’s new official faith — Christianity — found themselves without clear guidance as to what military roles their faith would permit. The death of the apostles had left Christians without ongoing revelatory guidance, and the New Testament writings alone were not definitive on the subject. The question thus became: ‘Can a Christian answer the Empire’s call to military duty and still have a clear conscience before God?’

Fifth-century philosopher St Augustine of Hippo sought to provide an answer to the question. His approach formed the foundation of the ‘just war’ tradition, which has had enormous influence upon moral-philosophical thought on military issues in the West ever since. This major new study identifies Augustine’s fundamental premises, reconstructs his just-war theory, and critically evaluates the reconstructed theory in light of his historical context and neo-Platonic and Christian philosophical considerations."(Google Book)

1)A punitive conception of war.
2)Assessment of the evil of war in terms of the evil moral attitudes and wants.
3)The authorization of the use of violence.
4)A duelistic epistemology which gives spiritual priorities to goods.
5)Interpretation of evangelical norms in terms of inner attitudes.
6)Passive attitude to authority and social change.
7)use of texts within the Bible to the participation of war.
8)An analogical knowledge of what peace is.


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Just War was the theory that Europeans used to defend themselves against invading infidels. Which is just the Christian version of Jihad which enabled them to attack and defend themselves against the Muslims. With this theory of Just War Europeans were able to fight back and invade Islamic countries, and unlike the Muslims they did not use the convert or die phrase until the 4th crusade. Which until the 4th crusade they did not have hardly any success, it was when the Mongols attacked them from one side and the Europeans on the other did they have any effect on the Muslims.

Just War was used in the crusades in order to take back their Christian and Holy Sites that were taken over by the Muslims during other Crusades or even before the 1st crusade. The Jihad theory or the 6th pillar of Islam was the same thing as Just war during the Crusades except that it was the taking over of the Holy Sites and the Christian relics.(Google Book)

"Of all the churches mentioned in the New Testament, only a single one, Rome, escaped Muslim domination.

In addition, piratical raids and campaigns of raiding on land, slave-taking and slaughter took place virtually every summer for a thousand years, both to acquire plunder, and to destabilise and weaken neighbouring Christian lands. No permanent peace with "infidels" was allowed by Islam.

Islam's scriptures, the Koran, make the approach to non-muslims clear:

"Make war on them until idolatry shall cease and God’s religion shall reign supreme" (8:39)

"Prophet, rouse the faithful to arms. If there are twenty steadfast men among you, they shall vanquish two hundred; and if there are a hundred, they shall rout a thousand unbelievers, for they are devoid of understanding." (8:65)

"Fight against such of those to whom the Scriptures were given ... and do not embrace the true Faith, until they pay tribute out of hand and are utterly subdued." (9:29)

"Slay the idolaters wherever you find them. ... lie in ambush everywhere for them. If they repent and take to prayer and render the alms levy, allow them to go their way ..." (9:5)

The Koran contains many similar verses.

In fact, most Muslim Scholars see the world as divided into two "houses"—the House of Peace (Dar Al-Salaam) and the House of War (Dar Al-Harb). The lands controlled by Muslims belong to the House of Peace, while those who have not yet submitted to Islam belong to the House of War until they are "utterly subdued."

So the entire context of the eastern Crusades is one of response to continuous Islamic aggression."

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Jihad

"Jihad (Arabic: jihād, ‘striving, exerting oneself’). Some classical Islamic writers distinguished between ‘the greater jihad’, a spiritual struggle against the evil within oneself, and a ‘lesser jihad’, physical effort in the cause of Islam, but it is the latter which is our concern here. It has meant in practice military action for either the spreading of Islam or its defence, following on from the idea of the universality of Islam and the consequent necessity of strenuous and continuous action for the furtherance of the faith. The basis of the doctrine is found in the Koran, and in strict Islamic law jihad is a duty on all adult free male believers until Islam has attained universal domination; hence there can be no permanent peace with unbelievers but only limited truces."

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This idea of Jihad was to spread Islam throughout the world, and this term will be used until the world is controlled by all of Islam. If and Islamic tribe was to be attacked they would use this to defend themselves against the threat and eliminate it so as to continue with their little peace that they had.

"In medieval times, feelings of jihad lay behind fighting for the defence of Islam in the Mediterranean basin, such as during the Crusades in the Levant and during the Christian Reconquista of the Iberian peninsula. It was also used for the spreading of Islam outside the heartlands, e.g. into sub-Saharan Africa, in the Indian subcontinent, and in Indonesia. Typical manifestations of this last in West Africa were the Fulani Jihad led by Usumanu dan Fodio (d. 1817) in Hausaland and jihads by Umar al-Futi and Samori Ture in other parts of black West Africa in the 19th century, aimed primarily at spreading the faith among local animists. In Muslim India, notable was the movement of the mujahedin or ‘fighters for the faith’ of Sayyid Ahmad Brelwi (killed 1831), primarily against the Sikhs in the Punjab, and other similar movements against the British which continued throughout the century and into the present one, especially along the North-West frontier. In pre-modern times jihad was not invariably directed against the outside, non-Islamic world; at various times, the slogans of jihad were employed in campaigns against heterodox or dissident Muslims, such as the Ismailis, during the Mongol period and just afterwards."

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"The word Jihad stems from the Arabic root word J-H-D, which means "strive." Other words derived from this root include "effort," "labor," and "fatigue." Essentially Jihad is an effort to practice religion in the face of oppression and persecution. The effort may come in fighting the evil in your own heart, or in standing up to a dictator. Military effort is included as an option, but as a last resort and not "to spread Islam by the sword" as the stereotype would have one believe.

The Qur'an describes Jihad as a system of checks and balances, as a way that Allah set up to "check one people by means of another." When one person or group transgresses their limits and violates the rights of others, Muslims have the right and the duty to "check" them and bring them back into line. There are several verses of the Qur'an that describe jihad in this manner. One example:

"And did not Allah check one set of people by means of another,
the earth would indeed be full of mischief;
but Allah is full of Bounty to all the worlds"
-Qur'an 2:251

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"Many accounts in the media define "jihad" as a synonym for "holy war," -- a vicious clash between followers of different religions, each of whom believes that God is on their side and that the other side is is of Satan. This usage often appears on Western TV, radio, and other media during news about the Middle East, where it is used to describe a call for Muslims to fight against non-Muslims in the defense of Islam. Some Muslims have begun to adopt this meaning of "jihad" as a result of Western influence."

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"Islam never tolerates unprovoked aggression from its own side; Muslims are commanded in the Qur'an not to begin hostilities, embark on any act of aggression, violate the rights of others, or harm the innocent. Even hurting or destroying animals or trees is forbidden. War is waged only to defend the religious community against oppression and persecution, because the Qur'an says that "persecution is worse than slaughter" and "let there be no hostility except to those who practice oppression" (Qur'an 2:190-193). Therefore, if non-Muslims are peaceful or indifferent to Islam, there is no justified reason to declare war on them.

The Qur'an describes those people who are permitted to fight:

"They are those who have been expelled from their homes
in defiance of right, for no cause except that they say,
'Our Lord is Allah.'
Did not Allah check one set of people by means of another,
there would surely have been pulled down monasteries, churches,
synagogues, and mosques, in which the name of God is commemorated
in abundant measure..."
-Qur'an 22:40

Note that the verse specifically commands the protection of all houses of worship. Finally, the Qur'an also says, "Let there be no compulsion in religion" (2:256). Forcing someone at the point of a sword to choose death or Islam is an idea that is foreign to Islam in spirit and in historical practice. There is absolutely no question of waging a "holy war" to "spread the faith" and compel people to embrace Islam; that would be an unholy war and the people's forced conversions would not be sincere.

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Jihad came to pass when Islam was opposed by all the nations that were around Islam. When a prophet or a Messenger comes from God all of their followers were considered righteous that were likely to advance quickly. Other religious sects around would soon begin to develop anger and jealously towards them. Because of this the teachers' students began to drop from their trap and join the prophets or messengers. because this started to happen they became angry with each other and started fighting. Then the "Pagans" began to attack them and prevent Islam from spreading, and because of this they attacked back in order to defend themselves.

Book^Online

The jihad is still going on today. We believe that there are terrorists all around us that use the Jihad is in action and that why they were able to terrorize the nation of America, and they use the jihad to signify that they can attack us.

Book^Online

in conclusion there is still Jihad going on today that was used during the crusades. Muslims still are trying to dominate the world so that then jihad would no longer be in place.

Saint Augustine

Saint Augustine was a bishop of Hippo during the 5th century. he was the one who influenced the crusades to take place through his various writings, which in fact were very popular with the clerics of the Medieval Time. His views on warfare and Christian ethos were very important in the "Just War" theory.
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"The decline of the Roman Empire gave rise to two problems, which combined to form one of the most perplexing philosophical questions of late antiquity. On the one hand, Rome found itself under constant military threat as various tribes from the north and east encroached along its borders to fill the power vacuum left by the receding Empire. On the other hand, adherents to the Empire’s new official faith — Christianity — found themselves without clear guidance as to what military roles their faith would permit. The death of the apostles had left Christians without ongoing revelatory guidance, and the New Testament writings alone were not definitive on the subject. The question thus became: ‘Can a Christian answer the Empire’s call to military duty and still have a clear conscience before God?’

Fifth-century philosopher St. Augustine of Hippo sought to provide an answer to the question. His approach formed the foundation of the ‘just war’ tradition, which has had enormous influence upon moral-philosophical thought on military issues in the West ever since. This major new study identifies Augustine’s fundamental premises, reconstructs his just-war theory, and critically evaluates the reconstructed theory in light of his historical context and neo-Platonic and Christian philosophical considerations."(Mattox Online Book)

St. Augustine was able to begin to compel the people that, though they didn't know what to do, they were able to fight because of his "Just War" theory. he slowly begins to build the foundation on which most of the western civilizations use today. His legacy still goes on and that is why we study him to know what this theory actually is, and how we use it today, if we use it today.

There were 8 principles that made up his Just War theory:

1)A punitive conception of war.
2)Assessment of the evil of war in terms of the evil moral attitudes and wants.
3)The authorization of the use of violence.
4)A duelistic epistemology which gives spiritual priorities to goods.
5)Interpretation of evangelical norms in terms of inner attitudes.
6)Passive attitude to authority and social change.
7)use of texts within the Bible to the participation of war.
8)An analogical knowledge of what peace is.

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"The Just War Theory is an authoritative Catholic Church teaching confirmed by the United States Catholic Bishops in their pastoral letter, The Challenge of Peace: God's Promise and Our Response, issued in 1983. More recently, the Catechism of the Catholic Church, in paragraph 2309, lists four strict conditions for "legitimate defense by military force":

* the damage inflicted by the aggressor on the nation or community of nations must be lasting, grave, and certain;
* all other means of putting an end to it must have been shown to be impractical or ineffective;
* there must be serious prospects of success;
* the use of arms must not produce evils and disorders graver than the evil to be eliminated. The power of modern means of destruction weighs very heavily in evaluating this condition.

While proponents claim such views have a long tradition, critics claim the application of Just War is only relativistic, and directly contradicts more universal philosophical traditions such as the Ethic of reciprocity.[citation needed] Secular humanists may accept just war theory based on universal ethics without reference to Christian morality.

Just War theorists combine both a moral abhorrence towards war with a readiness to accept that war may sometimes be necessary. The criteria of the just war tradition act as an aid to determining whether resorting to arms is morally permissible. Just War theories are attempts "to distinguish between justifiable and unjustifiable uses of organized armed forces"; they attempt "to conceive of how the use of arms might be restrained, made more humane, and ultimately directed towards the aim of establishing lasting peace and justice."[6]

The Just War tradition addresses the morality of the use of force in two parts: when it is right to resort to armed force (the concern of jus ad bellum) and what is acceptable in using such force (the concern of jus in bello).[7] In more recent years, a third category — jus post bellum — has been added, which governs the justice of war termination and peace agreements, as well as the prosecution of war criminals.

Libertarian scholar Murray Rothbard stated, "a just war exists when a people tries to ward off the threat of coercive domination by another people, or to overthrow an already-existing domination. A war is unjust, on the other hand, when a people try to impose domination on another people, or try to retain an already existing coercive rule over them."[8] Rothbard was an admitted anarchist or "anti-Statist", but left room nevertheless for a "minarchist" stance to allow social contracts to defend the general public from clear and present dangers."

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"Augustine's two greatest surviving works, out of several dozen, are his City of God and his Confessions. His conversion to Christianity is among the most famous, as many are familiar with his quip in which he asked God to make him chaste, but do it later. As the Bishop of Hippo, Augustine also was involved with the Council of Hippo in 393 which, along with the Council of Carthage in 397, first recognized the 27 books of the New Testament that are still recognized as the New Testament today.

His influence on Christian theology continued from the middle ages until the present day. All Medieval monks were likely made aware of Augustine at some point in their career and would have studied his works if they had the opportunity to receive a proper education in theology from the Church."

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His ability to influence and "charm" the monks in the middle ages played such a significant role in making the crusades begin, that if he wasn't there to influence them there probably wouldn't have been any crusades, and the world would be completely different than it is now.

"But, say they, the wise man will wage just wars. As if he would not all the rather lament the necessity of
just wars, if he remembers that he is a man; for if they were not just he would not wage them, and would
therefore be delivered from all wars. For it is the wrongdoing of the opposing party which compels the
wise man to wage just wars; and this wrong-doing, even though it gave rise to no war, would still be
matter of grief to man because it is man's wrong-doing… (Chapter 7)

Whoever gives even moderate attention to human affairs and to our common nature, will recognize that if
there is no man who does not wish to be joyful, neither is there any one who does not wish to have peace.
For even they who make war desire nothing but victory -- desire, that is to say, to attain to peace with
glory. For what else is victory than the conquest of those who resist us? And when this is done there is
peace. It is therefore with the desire for peace that wars are waged, even by those who take pleasure in
exercising their warlike nature in command and battle. And hence it is obvious that peace is the end sought
for by war. (Chapter 12)

For even when we wage a just war, our adversaries must be sinning; and every victory, even though
gained by wicked men, is a result of the first judgment of God, who humbles the vanquished either for the
sake of removing or of punishing their sins. Witness that man of God, Daniel, who, when he was in
captivity, confessed to God his own sins and the sins of his people, and declares with pious grief that these
were the cause of the captivity. (Chapter 15)"(Hippo Chapters 7, 12, and 15)

In the end it is not enough to wage war to achieve justice without treating the underlying causes. "Injustice, excessive economic or social inequalities, envy, distrust, and pride raging among men and nations constantly threaten peace and cause wars. Everything done to overcome these disorders contributes to building up peace and avoiding war" [CCC 2317]. The Church has no illusions that true justice and peace can be attained before the Coming of the Lord. It is the duty of men of good will to work towards it, nonetheless. In the words of the spiritual dictum, we should work as if everything depended upon our efforts, and pray as if everything depended upon God.
source

Mattox, John Mark. Saint Augustine and the Theory of Just War New York. 2006. Pp. 196 (online book)

Hippo, Augustine of. “The City of God,” Trans. by Marcus Dodds, D.D. In Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers, Series One, Volume 2. Edited by Philip Schaff, D.D., LL.D. American Edition, 1887.

Compare and Contrast the Greek and Roman gods

The Romans to begin with stole most of the Greek gods and put them into their own society. Mostly all the Romans did was give them different names, some new gods, they took some of them out, and they changed some of the books that had Greek gods in them such as the Iliad and the Odyssey.

Aphrodite (Venus) | goddess of love and beauty
Apollo (Apollo) | god of the arts (esp. poetry and music), archery, and divination
Ares (Mars) | god of war
Artemis (Diana) | goddess of the hunt and protector of children
Athena (Minerva) | goddess of wisdom, war, and crafts; patron of Athens
Demeter (Ceres) | goddess of agriculture and fertility
Dionysos (Bacchus) | god of wine, mysteries, and the theatre
Hephaistos (Vulcan) | god of smiths and metal-workers
Hera (Juno) | goddess of marriage; consort of Zeus
Hermes (Mercury) | god of merchants; messenger of Zeus
Poseidon (Neptune) | god of the sea and earthquakes
Zeus (Jupiter) | god of the sky; ruler of Olympus

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Now that is a basic showing of the Greek and Roman main top dogs in mythology. This next part shows in greater detail the differences between the Greek and Roman gods, both the ones that each worshiped some that only the Greeks worshiped and the Romans excluded in their worship, and those that the Romans put in there for their own wants in their gods. It also shows their names and the way that the Romans changed most of the Greek god's name.

Zeus	Jupiter, Jove	Lord of the Sky, Gods, and Thunder, also Rain-god, Cloud-gatherer
Hera	Juno	Protector of Marriage
Poseidon	Neptune	Ruler of the Sea
Hades, Polydectes	Pluto	God of the Underworld and Precious Metals
	Libitina	Goddess of the Underworld
Pallas Athena	Minerva	Goddess of the City, Education/Science, and War
Phoebus Apollo	Apollo	God of Sun, Truth, Music, Healing
Artemis, Orthia, Phoebe	Diana	Goddess of Wild Things, Hunter-in-Chief
Aphrodite, Anadyomene	Venus	Goddess of Love and Beauty
Hermes, Pyschopompus	Mercury	God of Commerce and Market, Zeus' Messenger
Ares	Mars	God of War
Enyo	Bellona	Lesser Goddess of War
Hephaestus	Vulcan, Mulciber	God of the Forge and Fire, Workman to the immortals
Hestia	Vesta	Goddess of the Hearth and Home; also Fertility(Greek only)
	Priapus	God of Fertility
Eros	Cupid, Amor	God of Love
Hymen		God of the Wedding Feast
Hebe		Goddess of Youth
	Juventus	God of Youth
Iris		Goddess of the Rainbow
Persephone, Kora	Persipina, Libera	Goddess of Spring [Season], Underworld through Hades
Demeter	Ceres	Goddess of the Corn, Earth, Harvest
Dionysus, Lycaeus	Bacchus, Liber	God of the Vine, Wine, Merriment
Pan	Inuus,Faunus	God of Flocks, Sheep
Selene	Luna	Goddess of the Moon
Helios	Sol	God of the Sun
	Terminus	Guardian of Boundaries
	Priapus	Cause of Fertility
	Pales	Strengthener of Cattle
	Sylvanus	Helper of Plowmen and Woodcutters
	Saturn	Protector of the Sowers and the Seed
	Janus	God of good beginnings
Eileithyia, Ilithyia	Lucina	Goddess of Childbirth
	Pomona & Vertumnus	Powers Protecting Orchards and Gardens
Aether		God of Light
Eos	Aurora, Mater Matuta	Goddess of the Dawn
Asklepios	Aesculapius	God of Health and Medicine
Hygea		Goddess of Health
Aeolus		King of the Winds
Boreas	Aquilo	North Wind
Zephyr	Favonius	West Wind
Notus	Auster	South Wind
Eurus	Eurus	East Wind
Pontus		God of the Deep Sea
Nereus		"Old Man of the Sea"
Triton		Trumpeter of the Sea
Ate		Goddess of Mischief
Eris	Discordia	Goddess of Discord
Maia	Fauna, Bono Dea	Goddess of Fields, "Good Goddess"
	Flora	Goddess of Flowers
Hypnos	Somnus	God of Sleep
	Juturna	Goddess of Springs [Water]
Nike	Victoria	Goddess of Victory
Peitha	Suadela	Goddess of Persuasion
Hecate	Trivia	Goddess of the Crossways, the Dark Side of the Moon, and Magic
Tyche	Fortuna	Goddess of Fortune
	Voluptas	Goddess of Pleasure
Poena		Goddess of Punishment
Nemesis		Goddess of Revenge
Hespera		Goddess of Dusk
Morpheus		God of Dreams
Phosphor	Lucifer	Light-bearer, Star that brings in the day
Fama		God of fame, rumor

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As you can see the Romans really changed the gods up to reach the standards that they wanted, because htey thought they were the superior beings (which they were at that time), and also because they wanted to be different from everyone else. now think nowadays doesn't America want to be different then everyone else? Don't American's change things up to reach their standards to show that they are superior? Yes to both, we like the Romans want to be different it shows that we are superior.

This blog wen through the idea that Rome was superior at that time. Rome wanted to be different then the Greeks because they took over them and all of the Mediterranean which would make them the super power at the time. So the Romans decided to change the gods that everyone worshiped they changed names added new ones and took some of the gods out to show the world that they can do what they wanted. Some of the gods had completely different names then what they had when the Greeks were in control.


References:

"The Olympians." Dr. James Jackson. http://198.248.56.50/~jjackson/oly.html.

Siren, "Greek Gods." http://www.geocities.com/Yosemite/7371/greekgods.html.

Tulane University, "Priapus." http://homeport.tcs.tulane.edu/lester/text/Western.Architect/Pompeii/Pompeii65.html.

Parada, Carlos. Greek Mythology Link. http://www.hsa.brown.edu/~maicar/.

Hamilton, Edith. Mythology. Boston: Little, Brown and Company, 1942

Final Questions

1.What was the most prominant building in Sumerian civilization?
a. The Ziggurat
b. The Temple
c.The City-State
d.The Obelisk
B

2.What are some similarities of Sumerian Epic the epic of Gilgamesh, and a Bible story that is well known? It is almost exactly like the story of Noah and the flood.

3.Explain the act of mummification.
They would cut a hole in your side pull out the organs. Then make a hole n your nose and with a metal stck slowly pull apart the brain and bring it out.

4.Why were Arab neighbors of Palestine outraged?
a. Because Palestine became richer then them.
b. Because Palestine was mostly jews.
c. Because Palestine was 90% Arab muslims.
d. Because Palestine was all nomadic peoples.
C

5.Why was the Babylonian captivity of the Hebrew people not last very long?
a. Because Persia took over Babylonia.
b. Bacause the nomadic peoples destroyed Babylon.
c. Because Solomon fought back.
d. Because Alexander destroyed Babylonia.
A

6.Why was the Great Peloponnesian War such a downfall for Greek city-states.
Because Athens was destroyed making the Delian League fall apart and making Athens' enemies to attack them.

7.What were the three citizen groups in Sumeria.
a.King, noble, slave
b.Noble, commoner, slave
c.King, soldier, slave
d.Prophet, Noble, Slave
B

Greek Art

Ancient Greek art, now a days, is very expensive and viewed highly as great paintings on pottery or great sculptures by an artist. But back when they were making these things the artists didn't make a lot of money because the Greeks at that time didn't care about art that much. The orange and black paintings that had men on the paintings were always naked no matter what they were doing. The orange and black style of painting derived from the Greek Culture and was normally paitned on jars that were traded across seas and they had no value what so ever. But now if you find an actual pot that was painted it would be worth millions.

Archaic Art
"The Archaic sculptures are silent witnesses to the extraordinary development western society was about to undertake. The Kouros and Kore statues stand before a cultural revolution, all muscles tense, like a spring about to burst with energy into an extraordinary wave of classical thought. They stand with smiles frozen with meaning as if they knew what was about to occur [ more ]"

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"The Classical Period
At the National Museum of Athens: The ancient Greek Artist invented his own self and became the creator of god and man alike in a universe of perfect formal proportions, idealized aesthetic values and a newly found sense of freedom. This was a freedom from barbarism and tyranny [ more ] "

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"Hellenistic Art
Exclusive Gifts and apparel The subtle implications of greatness and humility of the high Classical era (see the Charioteer of Delphi) are replaced with bold expressions of energy and power during the moments of tension as evident in the Boy Jockey. [ more ] "

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These were some of several Greek arts that involved skill to create. The most common though of all is that which lasted the entire Greek time period. That is the paintings on pottery such as the orange and black colored pots. What is so significant of these is of course they will be painted by artists, and they will sometimes paint stories on the pots to show the world what Greek city-states, which were cities that acted as their own nation, were doing.

If you look at a statue in a museum or something you can tell if it is a greek statue or not. All Greek statues are perfect. They will show a many with a six pack, perfect body, will show them wearing armor, and they will be buff. Greeks did this in a way of showing that they are te superior that they are better a way of provoking the other nation surrounding them.

source

Work citied:

Powers, H. H. The message of greek art. The macmillan co., New York, 1913.

Movie before the Spartans

Alexander the Great

Alexander the Great who was king of Greece conquerd much of the world that was unknown to the ancient Greeks at the time.

"Alexander the Great (Greek: Ἀλέξανδρος ὁ Μέγας or Μέγας Ἀλέξανδρος,[1] Mégas Aléxandros; July 20, 356 BC[2] – June 10 or June 11, 323 BC),[3] also known as Alexander III of Macedon (Ἀλέξανδρος Γ' ὁ Μακεδών) was an ancient Greek[4][5] king (basileus) of Macedon (336–323 BC). He was one of the most successful military commanders of all time and is presumed undefeated in battle. By the time of his death, he had conquered most of the world known to the ancient Greeks.[6]>

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Alexander was a great war hero to the Greeks. He was their king, their uniter of the Greek colonies, and their leader in the wars against the world. He took over and destroyed many great empires.

"Alexander assumed the kingship of Macedon following the death of his father Philip II, who had unified[7] most of the city-states of mainland Greece under Macedonian hegemony in a federation called the League of Corinth.[8] After reconfirming Macedonian rule by quashing a rebellion of southern Greek city-states and staging a short but bloody excursion against Macedon's northern neighbours, Alexander set out east against the Achaemenid Persian Empire, which he defeated and overthrew.

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He was such a great militairy leader that later ofter the overthrow of the Persian empire he extended his boundries as far as India. On his conquest he took over many places such as giza and all of Egypt, Meopatamis, Syria, and many other places. leagend has it that he was an undefeated general during his reign.

"Alexander was born in Pella, Macedonia, the son of Philip of Macedon, who was an excellent general and organizer. His mother was Olympias, princess of Epirus. She was brilliant and hot-tempered. Alexander inherited the best qualities of both his parents. But he was even more ambitious than his father. He wept bitterly when he heard of Philip's conquests and said, " My father will get ahead of me in everything, and will leave nothing great for me to do." Alexander's mother taught him that Achilles was his ancestor, and that his father was descended from Hercules. Alexander learned by heart the Iliad, a story about the deeds of Achilles. He carried a copy of the Iliad with him, and Achilles became Alexander's model .
Even as a boy Alexander was fearless and strong. He tamed the beautiful and spirited Bucephalus, a horse that no one else dared to touch or ride. Later, this famous steed carried him as far as India, where it died. Alexander then built the city of Bucephala on the Hydaspes River in memory of his beloved horse. Philip was so proud of Alexander's power over the horse that he said, "O my son, seek out a kingdom worthy of thyself, for Macedonia is too little for thee."

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So even from an early stage Alexander was a well learned person who because of his fearlessness and his strength even as a boy made him the man that he was when he was older. As a youth he was a pupil of Aristotle he was always ready to learn from Aristotle and at the age of 18 he participated in a battle that his father the king was commanding. Alexander murdered his father for the throne and wished to be worshiped as gods got worshiped.

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"Alexander had vast plans, including his governmental reorganization and an expedition to Arabia. But he was taken seriously ill with malaria at Babylon. The simple remedies of the day did not help him. He died on June 13, 323 B.C. His body was placed in a gold coffin and taken to Memphis, in Egypt. Later it was carried to Alexandria, and placed in a beautiful tomb.
Alexander left no choice for a successor. His only son, Alexander IV, was born after Alexander's death. As a result, Alexander's leading generals became governors of various areas and fought among themselves for control of the Empire. But no single leader emerged, and by 311 B.C. the empire split into independant states or monarchies."

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Alexander's will that he had to take over and rule the world nad be worshiped as a god fell into termoil espacially after his death. Everything he had fought for was worthless because he did not have a succesor.

This is a poem with a son talking to his dad.

People,The Best Loved Poems of the American:1936 Bantam Doubleday Dell Publishing Group, Inc.

Son:

How big was Alexander, pa,

That People call him Great?

Was he like old goliath tall

His spear a hundred weight?

Was he so large that he could stand

Like some tall steeple high

And while his feet were on the ground

His hands could touch the sky?

Father:

O no, my child:about as large

As me or uncle James

Twas not his stature that made him great

But greatness of his name.

Son:

His name so great? I know tis long

But easy quite to spell

And more than half a year ago

I knew it very well

Father:

I mean my child his actions were

So great he got his name

That everybody speaks with praise

That tells about his fame.

Son:

Well what actions did he do?

I want to know it all

Father:

Why he it was who conquered Tyre

And leveled down her wall

And thousands of her people slew

And then to Persia went

And fire and sword on every side

Though many a region sent

A hundred conquered cities shone

With midknight burnings red

And strewedo'er a many a battleground

A thousands soldiers bled.

Son:

Did killing people make him great?

Then why was Able Young

Who killedhis neighbor training day

Put into jail and hung?

I never heard them call him great.

Father:

Why no twas not a war

And him who kills a single man

His neighbors all abhor.

Son:

Well then if i should kill a man

I'd kill a hundred more I should be great and not be hung

Like Abel Young before.

Father:

Not so my child twill never do

The Gospel bids be kind

Son:

Then they that kill and they that praise

The Gospel do not mind.

Father:

You know my child the Bible says

That you must always do

To others as you wish

To have them do to you.

Son:

But Pa did Alexander wish

That some strong man would come

And burn his house and kill him too

And do as he has done?

Did everybody call him Great

For killing people so?

Well now what right did he have to kill

I should be glad to know.

If one should burn the building here

And kill the folks within

Would anybody call him Great

For such a wicked thing?(People 407-408)

Era of Pericles

The Era of Pericles is very important in todays history because during his reign many brilliant people came along in Athens and created new ideas such as the person who figured out that the moon reflected the sun's rays. Also he was the leader of Athens during Athens's golden age which was constructed when he was in the process of creating a great empire.

"Pericles was also considered an eloquent speaker who "carried the thunder and lightning on his tongue". Although he was from an aristocratic family, he was the leader of the peoples' party. His mistress was the intelligent and beautiful Aspasia, whom he was to marry later on in life. Together the couple would host meetings of intellectuals and their wives in their home.

Pericles' rule as a statesman in Athens is called the Golden Age of Pericles, and he was an eager supporter of democracy. He wanted all citizens of Athens to take an active part in politics, and he was the first to pay servants to the state. Members of the council were chosen by all Athenians, and Pericles restored and built many temples and structures, such as the Parthenon on the Acropolis, employing the poorest citizens.

source

Shutt, Phillip. Foundations of Western Thought. Barnes and Noble Publishing/Audio. New York: 2004.

His building plan was enormous it cost Athens in modern day terms a couble billion dollars to create the structures that he created in the golden age of Athens. The building of the parthenon was so grand and needed such skill to create that it took many years to create.

The Parthenon of Athens was crafted by masters in Athens that if made a mistake would be severly punished. It use to enclose approximatley a 40ft solid gold and ivory statue of Athena the grey eyed one and was studded with jewels that held a 6ft statue of Nike.

"Pericles had such a profound influence on Athenian society that Thucydides, his contemporary historian, acclaimed him as "the first citizen of Athens". Pericles turned the Delian League into an Athenian empire and led his countrymen during the first two years of the Peloponnesian War. The period during which he led Athens, roughly from 461 to 429 BC, is sometimes known as the "Age of Pericles", though the period thus denoted can include times as early as the Persian Wars, or as late as the next century.

Pericles promoted the arts and literature; this was a chief reason Athens holds the reputation of being the educational and cultural centre of the ancient Greek world. He started an ambitious project that built most of the surviving structures on the Acropolis (including the Parthenon). This project beautified the city, exhibited its glory, and gave work to the people.[1] Furthermore, Pericles fostered Athenian democracy to such an extent that critics call him a populist.[2][3]"

source

Shutt, Phillip. Foundations of Western Thought. Barnes and Noble Publishing/Audio. New York: 2004.

Pericles was ruler of Athens for over 20 years and as you have read established a prominant empire and willingly continued the democracy that was established by Cleisthenes. This era when Pericles was ruler was significant mainly because of the things he built said and did. one of the things that lead to the downfall of Athens was that Pericles after being thrown from ruler of Athens told the people of Athens that going to war with the spartans would be an uter destruction for the Athenian people and for Athens. He knew that they had reached their apex he just didn't realize how rapid they would fall in such little time.

Favorite Topic in Egyptian History

There are so many different topics that fascinated me throughout last quarter, but the most fascinating was King Tut. This was the most fascinating topic because as you look into all the other pharaohs when we looked into their tombs they were looted and/ or destroyed. Tombs were missing, but King Tut was untouched with all his treasures that included his solid gold sarcophagus and golden throne.

This was amazing because all of the other pharaohs had stolen items and hardly any items in perfect condition do to grave robberies. Another fascinating feat of this pharaaoh was that he became a pharaoh at the age of 9 and supposedly married a 13 year old girl. he died at the age of 19 with only reigning for 10 years which is such a short time compared to all the other pharaohs that would reing on average of 35 years.

King Tut did not do any great achievements himself because since he was so young he was not able to make any decisions, instead his elders and council leaders did all of the ruling and decisions that normally a pharaoh would make for him. Since he died at the age of 19 he was just one year over the age that he "was allowed" to rule so he made very few decisions in that one year.

Another thing that was great about him was that his death is largely debated right now. Some believe that he was probably poisned which was one of the common sudden deaths with pharaohs and elders and council members. Another debate is whether he was hit on the head with a club which means one of his elders, a council members, someone high on the branch of royalty, or someone he trusted highly killed him because noone else ever came near to the pharaoh.

These were some of the fascinating things that i loved about King Tut and why he is one of my favorite topics in Egyptian history.

Nefertiti

Arguably, to those who are not very involved in the study of ancient Egypt, Queen Nefertiti is perhaps better known than her husband, the heretic king Akhenaten (Amenhotep IV). It is said that even in the ancient world, her beauty was famous, and her famous statue, found in a sculptor's workshop, is not only one of the most recognizable icons of ancient Egypt, but also the topic of some modern controversy. She was more than a pretty face however, for she seems to have taken a hitherto unprecedented level of importance in the Amarna period of Egypt's 18th Dynasty. In artwork, her status is evident and indicates that she had almost as much influence as her husband. For example, she is depicted nearly twice as often in reliefs as her husband, at least during the first five years of his reign. Indeed, she is once even shown in the conventional pose of a pharaoh smiting his (or in this case, her) enemy.

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Queen Nefertiti was also significant in a way that she was not of the royal family, but was most likely a daughter of an army officer who later became the pharaoh Ay who might have been brother of Tiye. Nefratiti's name roughly meaning "the beautiful one" or "one has arrived". It is thought that she might have ruled for a little while after her husband died and before anyone could take control of the throne. She also shares her name with a type of beautiful gold bead, called nefer, Nefratiti loved wearing this bead all the time.

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Akhenaten constructed a place to worship Aten, the sun disk god, and named his capitol Akhetaon. This new city was unique and unlike most ancient Egyptian cities. The temples were constructed with no roofs, allowing the rays of the sun to enter the temple. His city had palaces along with villas for the rich, and inhabited almost twenty to fifty thousand villagers.
Supporting her husbands’ beliefs, she changed her name to Neferneferuaten-Nefertiti meaning, “The Aten is radiant of radiance [because] the beautiful one has come.” Nefertiti was more then just a queen, she supported her husband, promoted his religious beliefs, and was depicted more pharaonic, rather then queenly. New findings are proving that Nefertiti was probably one of Egypt’s most powerful queens to ever rule. She was shown with the crown of a pharaoh and was depicted in scenes of battle. Also a large tomb was constructed for her, thought to be a tomb fit for a pharaoh. Although depicted gallantly and heroically, queen Nefertiti loved and cared for her deformed and sickly husband.

source

Haffner, Craig and Donna E. Lusitana. Mummies and the Wonders of Ancient Egypt. A&E Television Network: New York, 1996.

Something alse that is amazing about this lady is that twelve years into Akhanaten's reign she completly disappears from history. no one knows how or why this happens, but suddenly after that Akhanaten goes insane because in the smae month his daughter dies and Egypt goes into complete chaos. Nefratiti's body was never found some believe that she wasn't uried in the Valley of the Kings and that Akhanaten created a seperate place for her to reside so that her resting place does not get disturbed.(Hafner)

Freed, Rita E., Yvonne J. Markowitz, and Sue H. D'Auria, eds. Pharaohs of the Sun. Boston: Little, Brown, 1999.

When Nefertiti was fifteen years old, she married Amenhotep IV, who was a year older and became king upon his father's death. They had six daughters and, according to some, one son. During the first five years of Amenhotep's reign, Nefertiti enjoyed a high profile. Evidence of her political importance is seen in the large number of carved scenes in which she is shown accompanying him during ceremonial acts. She is shown taking part in the daily worship and making offerings. Similar to those of the king—acts quite unlike those usually performed by previous chief queens, all of whom had a secondary role.
In the fifth year of his reign, Amenhotep changed his name to Akhenaten. He went against the beliefs of previous kings by announcing that the sun god Aten was the greatest of all Egyptian gods and the only one who should be worshipped, rather than Amen-Ra, who had long been considered supreme. Nefertiti shared his belief. Largely because of opposition over this issue, Akhenaten built a new capital called Akhetaten and moved the royal family there.

This was a great woman changing her name to match her husbands monotheistic belief and taking part in some acts that normally only pharaohs would do. This was definantly a remarkable woman. Her body never found and unlike other pharaohs maybe buried in a completly different place than the valley of the kings.

King Tutankhamun

King Tut was one of the great pharaohs for several reat reasons which i will present in this blog. First of all he is known well is he reigned for only 9 years beggining his reign when he was only 9. he died at the age of 18 and when he was 9 he married a 13 year old woman. His tomb wasn't found until 1922 on the date of September the 23 by archeoligist Howard Carter.

Oakes,Lorna and Gahlin, Lucia. "Ancient Egypt" 2003 Barnes and Noble

Howars Carter and his partner Lord Carnarvon started the search for King Tut's grave which wasnt found until 1922 By Howard carter after the fifth season of searching. howard's partner Lord Carnarvon originally wanted to give up the search,but Howard wanted to continue the search. When the door bearing King Tut's seal took several weeks to remove the debris behind it. After they came to the second door they moved it open inch by inch. howard got the first look inside it and at first he couldn't see anything taking that it was already robbed. But suddenly he caught the glimmer of gold inside and found it filled with gold and riches beyond our wildest dreams.(Oakes 254-255)

"The first room they came to was a fake and it had a hidden door that led to the main chamber. From the main chamber two rooms split off. There was a storage room and the burial chamber where the mummy was laid. Many people died of the so-called curse on King Tut's tomb but we now know that bacteria sealed in the tomb fed on the food in the tomb and killed the workers when it got in their lungs. Carter said later "As my eyes grew accustomed to the light I was struck dumb with amazement". A winged scarab beetle spells out the hieroglyphs " Neb, Kheperu and Re" which mean Tutankhamun."

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Dersin, Denise; "What Life Was Like on the Banks of the Nile". 1997 Time Life Inc.

King Tut was a very young Pharaoh starting his rule. He entered the after world accompanied by his wealth which included this rare 22 and a half pound solid gold death mask.There were many other things besides this there were 164 baskets of dried fruit, a solid gold throne, golden fan, 3 glass vessels, serpent amulet, 80 stone vessels, 4 board games,2 life-size gaurdian statues, 454 arrows and arrow heads, a scarab chain, bronze razors, an iron dagger, headrests of glass faience and ivory, 6 chariots, and much much more.(Dersin 164-167)

"We do know that he spent his early years in Amarna, and probably in the North Palace. He evidently even started a tomb at Amarna. At age nine he was married to Ankhesenpaaten, his half sister, and later Ankhesenamun. We believe Ankhesenpaaten was older then Tutankhamun because she was probably of child bearing age, seemingly already having had a child by her father, Akhenaten. It is possible also that Ankhesenamun had been married to Tutankhamun's predecessor. It seems he did not succeed Akhenaten directly as ruler of Egypt, but either an older brother or his uncle, Smenkhkare (keeping in mind that there is much controversy surrounding this king). We believe Tutankhamun probably had two daughters later, but no sons."

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"Some time after his death, Tutankhamen's tomb in western Thebes (not his original, which Ay had appropriated for himself) was entered twice by plunderers who, however, were caught after doing only minor damage. The burial chamber was not entered and remained intact until it was discovered in 1922 by Howard Carter, the English Egyptologist who excavated the tomb. When in the 19th dynasty the "Amarna kings"--Akhenaton, Smenkhkare, Tutankhamen, and Ay--were stricken from the royal lists and publicly condemned, the location of Tutankhamen's tomb was forgotten, and his relatively few monuments were usurped, chiefly by his former general, Horemheb, who later became pharaoh. In the 20th dynasty, when the tomb of Ramses VI was cut immediately above that of Tutankhamen, the stone rubble dumped down the side of the valley covered the young king's tomb with a deep layer of chips. The workers of the 20th dynasty came close to Tutankhamen's tomb and clearly had no knowledge of it. The tomb escaped the great series of robberies at the end of the 20th dynasty and was preserved until a systematic search of the Valley of the Kings revealed its location.
Inside his small tomb, the king's mummy lay within a nest of three coffins, the innermost of solid gold, the two outer ones of gold hammered over wooden frames. On the king's head was a magnificent golden portrait mask, and numerous pieces of jewelry and amulets lay upon the mummy and in its wrappings. The coffins and stone sarcophagus were surrounded by four shrines of hammered gold over wood, covered with texts, which practically filled the burial chamber. The other rooms were crammed with furniture, statuary, clothes, a chariot, weapons, staffs, and numerous other objects. But for his tomb, Tutankhamen had little claim to fame; as it is, he is perhaps better known than any of his longer lived and better documented predecessors and successors."

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Ramses The ll

King Ramses II , who reigned for 67 years during the 19th dynasty of the 12th century BC, was known as "Ramses the Great". He is known as one of Egypt's greatest warriors, but also as a peace-maker and for the monuments he left behind all over Egypt. He was the first king in history to sign a peace treaty with his enemies, the Hittites, ending long years of wars and hostility.King Ramses reigned for 67 years (1292–1225 B.C.). Under him Egypt acquired unprecedented splendor. His empire extended from Syria to near the Fourth Cataract of the Nile.

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King Ramses the ll(KRll) regin was prosperous new technology, more slaves, more land, beautiful temples, and an increased mercenary army all which afterwards Egypt's prosperety began to decline.

Ramses The Great marched 20,000 soldiers north into Syria to defend his empire against Hittite invaders. His empire stretched from South Syria to the fourth cataract of the Nile. Social life was luxurious for the upper classes during his reign and Ramses The Great left many monuments to himself. Ramses duty was to preserve the union of Upper and Lower Egypt which he did by defeating Egypts enemies and honoring the gods.

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"The Hittite army of 37,000 footsoldiers and 3500 chariots was hiding behind the tell of Kadesh, but Ramses believed false rumors that his enemy was still near Haleb. After beating what he thought was the truth out of two captured Hittites, he held a council of war and the vizier in a chariot and a rider on horseback were dispatched south to hasten the progress of the Ptah division. While the Amen division was setting up camp, 2500 Hittite chariots attacked the marching Re division in two waves. The other two Egyptian divisions were still on the far side of the river Orontes (Arnath) near the town of Sabtuna. G.Cavillier casts doubts on the possibility of the Hittite army being able to hide from the view of the Egyptians and ford the Orontes in sufficient numbers in a very short time to be able to mount a surprise attack. [1] - but if they were stationed on the western bank of the river they did not have to cross the Orontes itself but only the small brook el Mukadiyeh, being stationed on the fields between the river and the town.
At this time, a force referred to as nearin arrived, surprising the pilfering Hittites, and drove them out of the camp. Their identity is the subject of debate. At times they are equated with sDm-aS (Sedjemash), which accords well with the meaning of Ugaritic n'rm. According to this interpretation they were camp-followers: servants, grooms and others. Others see them as recruits coming from Amurru. Muwatalli sent an additional 1000 chariots led by the kings of Aleppo and Karkhemish, two of his own brothers and many allied princes, but kept most of his infantry to himself on the far side of the river.
Ramses reorganized his forces and the Hittites escaped being surrounded by the Egyptians by retreating towards Kadesh. After receiving a message from Muwatalli, Ramses decided to retreat. According to the Egyptians, the "wretched, vanquished chief of Hatti" pleaded with the pharaoh
Suteh are you, Baal himself, your anger burns like fire in the land of Hatti... Your servant speaks to you and announces that you are the son of Re. He put all the lands into your hand, united as one. The land of Kemi, the land of Hatti, are at your service. They are under your feet. Re, your exalted father, gave them to you so you would rule us. Is it good, that you should kill your servants? ... Look at what you have done yesterday. You have slaughtered thousands of your servants ... You will not leave any inheritance. Do not rob yourself of your property, powerful king, glorious in battle, give us breath in our nostrils. The route through the Biqa'a valley being considered too risky, it was decided to take the route east of it, through Upe in the region of Damascus.
The battle of Kadesh should perhaps not be called a battle in the strictest sense of the word, but rather a large-scale skirmish preceding the decisive encounter which in the end never took place. Nevertheless, Muwatalli was able to rob his opponent of the initiative and eliminated about a third of his troops. The failure of Ramses' campaign was a result of his tactical mistakes. He did not send enough scouts to explore the countryside sufficiently, the divisions were separated by up to 15 kms from each other and there was no adequate protection of the flanks. Still, the king blamed his troops
not one of my princes, of my chief men and my great,Was with me, not a captain, not a knight;For my warriors and chariots had left me to my fate,Not one was there to take his part in fight. ........Here I stand,All alone;There is no one at my side,My warriors and chariots afeared,Have deserted me, none heardMy voice, when to the cravens I, their king, for succor, cried.But I find that Ammon's graceIs better far to meThan a million fighting men and ten thousand chariots be.
The Poem of Pentaur This attack on the army and his leaders was the beginning of the gradual distancing process between army and king, who relied more and more on Amen and his priesthood. Since the reign of Horemheb, who had appointed a general to succeed him, the army command had played a decisive role in foreign policy decisions. Ramses II reasserted the royal power in this domain and brought about a rapprochement between Egypt and Hatti which culminated in the signing of a peace treaty.
Ramses described the campaign as a splendid victory, while in reality Kadesh remained in Hittite hands, Amurru fell to the Hittites and the Egyptian losses were substantial. "

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David, Rosalie; Handbook to the Life In Ancient Egypt. 1998 Facts on File Inc.

During KRll the upper class were made mainy of militairy officers. He reigned during the middle kingdom so he would lead the men into battle. His army consisting of many foot soldiers and mercenaries. When they fought the Hiksos they would fight chariots that later they woukd use. He allowed his militairy officers to loot cities they had destroyed and give some to the men. His army would load loot onto carts drawn by pack animals like ox, mules, and donkeys if they couldn't carry it or if it was a far distance. (David 239)

"King Ramses II was the third pharaoh in the nineteenth dynasty. He ruled from 1304- 1237 BC and was the son of Seti I and his grandfather was Ramses I. Ramses is regarded as the greatest Pharaoh in Egyptian history. (Kjeilen II 1) Ramses accomplished the most of any pharaoh during his period of rule. When Ramses became the Pharaoh, previous kings and figures of authority tested him. It was customary for previous rulers to examine the new pharaohs. Past emperors would test a new king’s power to see if Ramses would be able to keep peace and non-violence in his period of rule. (Usr-Maat 1) Despite Ramses vigorous testing, Ramses accomplished many goals and went on to become a great King."

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Lehner, Mark. The Complete Pyramids. New York, New York: Thames and Hudson, 1997

Hobson, Christine. The World Of The Pharaohs. New York, New York: Thames and Hudson, 1997.

"Ramses had an uncontrollable love for building. Not only did Ramses construct many of his own monuments, Ramses inscribed messages and depicted scenes of his own on many buildings and statues already built. An example of this would be that on the outer walls of the Temple of Karnak, he depicted the battle at Kadesh in great detail. It showed Ramses slaying Hittite warriors. (Hobson 138) The magnificent Sphinx, which is still an enigma to us today, were the greatest constructions until the period of Ramses. (Lehner 127) If visitors who come to the Temple think about how big the Sphinx are that is how big many of Ramses statues are.

Ramses also contributed to the building of the Hypostle Wall. Ramses constructed two pylons from cinder squares, which led to the actual Hypostle Wall. (Hobson 136) The Hypostle Wall was started by his grandfather Ramses I, finished by his father Seti I, and it was illegally seized by Ramses II. Ramses II had no legal right to the building, yet the pharaoh still took it under his name. (Hobson 136). Regardless of the fact that he is regarded as the greatest pharaoh in Egyptian history, Ramses was notorious for illegally seizing buildings that were already constructed. Ramses II was also concluded to have erected Per- Ramesses, which means "Great Palace." (Hobson 122) One of the most regarded buildings is the magnificent Rammeseum. Inside the Rammeseum, there are hundreds of statues lying fallen on the ground, many of Ramses and some others of miscellaneous categories. This modern marvel was made for Ramses’s cult. (Hobson 143) Ramses contributed to his mystique by erecting the Temple at Abu-Simbel."

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After KRll died he was buried in the Necropolis in The Valley of the Kings his tomb was looted and was not found. the next ruler anfter ramses was his twelfth oldest son Merenptah. He was regarded as the greatest ruler in all of anceient Egypt's history. Even with all of the technology and tools we have today we are not ableto duplicate the massive well sturctured and organized temples and building today. He was definantly the worlds greatest artistic hand.